New research challenges 65-year-old framework for understanding language

Linguistics experts are calling for a radical rethink of what defines human language as their research redefines our understanding of language.

For more than six decades, Charles Hockett’s ‘design features’ have been considered the go-to standard for explaining what makes language unique, but new research reveals that this framework no longer reflects major findings in linguistics, cognitive science, and biology.

An international group of researchers, including experts from the University of Birmingham, have published their findings in Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

Their findings have profound implications for education, inclusion, and public understanding. The researchers challenge outdated textbook narratives that equate language with speech, affirm the legitimacy of sign languages and non-speech modalities, and offer educators a modern framework for teaching communication and cognition.

The researchers argue that Hockett’s framework, published in 1960, no longer reflects the complexity of modern communication. Hockett’s 13 features — such as arbitrariness, duality of patterning, and displacement — have shaped linguistic theory, but according to co-author Dr Marcus Perlman, Associate Professor in Linguistics and Communication at the University of Birmingham, science has moved on.

Dr Perlman said: “The last few decades have been an exciting time for linguistics, especially for those of us interested in the origins of human language. Language scientists today have better insight into the huge advances in our understanding of sign languages and now tactile signing systems, and recently, the advent of large language models like ChatGPT. It makes sense that linguistic theory requires a major update.”

The study, which includes researchers from the Max Planck Institute in Netherlands, and Nicolaus Copernicus University in Poland, proposes a new way of looking at language that focuses on connection, context, and creativity rather than a rigid checklist of traits. The researchers identify three key principles that redefine language:

1. Multimodality and Semiotic Diversity
   Language is not limited to speech. Signed languages, tactile communication - such as Protactile used by DeafBlind communities - gestures, facial expressions, and even iconicity, where form resembles meaning (such as a slow drawl for ‘slooooow’) are central to how humans communicate, as are imitative gestures and emojis in written communication.
2. Language as Social and Functional
   Communication is about co-creating meaning in context. Language signals identity, builds relationships, and shapes thought, going far beyond simple message transmission. A simple phrase like ‘Isn’t that Tom’s bike?’ can mean ‘Let’s meet here’ or ‘Let’s avoid this place’ - depending on our history with Tom and each other.
3. Language as an Adaptive, Evolving System
   Many of language’s most prominent features such as its productivity and compositional structure do not just ‘exist’ but emerge through social interaction and cultural transmission, evolving in real time across generations. Languages adapt to their social environment, with different community structures giving rise to the amazing cross-linguistic diversity we see today.

Scholars have discovered that animal communication is far more sophisticated than once believed: dolphins use signature whistles, birds construct complex songs with syntax-like structure, and apes engage in intentional, context-sensitive communication with gestures. And now with the rise of generative AI, the very idea that language belongs only to biological minds is now under debate.

Co-author Dr Limor Raviv from the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, in Nijmegen, said: “Language is not a static code. It’s a dynamic, embodied, and deeply social act. When we understand that, we see not just what makes us human — but how we are connected to the wider world of communication.”

The research also intersects with pressing societal questions. Animal communication is now recognised as far more sophisticated than once believed, and generative AI blurs the line between human and machine language. These developments raise urgent questions: What is language, and who — or what — can use it?

Dr. Michael Pleyer, lead author and researcher at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, said: “This isn’t about discarding Hockett, but rather about updating him. His framework was revolutionary in 1960, but today we know language is not a static code. It’s a dynamic, multimodal, socially embedded system that evolves through interaction, culture, and meaning making.”

The study draws upon decades of findings from linguistics, cognitive science, animal behavior, and neuroscience. It builds on recent work, including a 2022 study showing that Hockett’s features remain dominant in introductory textbooks — despite growing evidence that they no longer capture the full picture.