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Building effective inclusive education systems

Most comprehensive global study of SEND policy implementation reveals what works as countries across the world rethink support for children and young people.

19 October 2026
View over teacher's shoulder of school children sitting on the classroom floor raising hands to answer a question

The study provides internationally comparable evidence covering both SEND policy texts on paper and the lived experiences of children, families, educators and policymakers.

Article by Adam Green, freelance journalist.

Across the world, the provision of Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND) support has increased over the last two decades, with the percentage of countries with inclusive education laws growing from 1% to 24%. But the realities on the ground are sobering. The UK government is currently reexamining the SEND approach in England as the sector faces spiralling costs, uneven provision and piecemeal services.

According to Professor Susana Castro-Kemp, 125th Anniversary Chair and Professor of Inclusion in the University of Birmingham’s School of Education, the rise in demand for SEND provision requires more coordinated and holistic approaches, in the classroom and beyond. Understanding how national systems respond to SEND demand across contexts may help with planning policies that are positively experienced by end-users, in classrooms, schools, communities and homes.

To that end, Castro-Kemp leads ScopeSEND, the most comprehensive international analysis of SEND policy implementation. Produced with collaborators at UCL and King’s College London, and funded by the Nuffield Foundation, the team conducted a systematic policy review across the four countries of the UK, alongside five other comparable nations (Ireland, Switzerland, Australia, Flanders/Belgium, and Finland). A further partnership with the Centre for Education Systems added eight more jurisdictions (Ontario, New Zealand, Singapore, Japan, France, Poland, Estonia and the Netherlands).

Through quantitative and qualitative methods, including sentiment analysis of policy language, systematic reviews, and in-depth interviews, the team harnessed an input-process-output model (IPO) to provide a full picture of impact and effectiveness. “If you want to analyse how policy works, you can't just focus on the policy itself. You need to understand how people experience it in context,” explains Castro-Kemp. The result is a unique, internationally comparable evidence base covering both SEND policy texts on paper and the lived experience of their end users, informed by over 300 interviews with children, families, educators and policymakers.

The SEND spectrum

The project reveals that policies across countries differ in how they define SEND, and they do so across a spectrum, ranging from a medicalised diagnostic approach to a needs-based model, characterised by a more inclusive and flexible approach, based on everyday life participation needs, regardless of the diagnosis.

Some jurisdictions, including England and Singapore, have been driven by what Castro-Kemp calls “diagnostic capital”, where policies are oriented to diagnosis to access support services. This is reflected in how policymakers define the issue. In Singapore, for example, a diagnosis becomes a passport to accessing specialist support services. When a child with SEND is defined as a child with a diagnosis, it poses equity risks for those without. “How SEND is defined is a key issue that drives other elements of the system,” says Castro-Kemp.

England is more towards the diagnostic-led side of the spectrum, and that has been one of the main issues with the system for a very long time.

Susana Castro-Kemp
Professor of Inclusion, 125th Anniversary Chair

A diagnosis-led approach can lead to unequal outcomes, since it is not accessible for all. In England, the number of children and young people waiting for an ADHD assessment reached 270,000 by December 2025. Across the UK, wait times for an autism assessment can range from a few months to several years while private autism diagnoses can reach £3,800. “England is more towards the diagnostic-led side of the spectrum, and that has been one of the main issues with the system for a very long time,” Castro-Kemp argues.

The country has historically been oriented to a ‘quasi-market’ system in terms of how SEND policy operates, with a proliferation of independent special education schools, supported and funded by local authorities. This is, in part, to fill gaps in space, resources, or preparedness in mainstream education, but it’s also driven by the goals of private equity owners that have emerged in this space, which may conflict with accessibility and inclusion.

Meanwhile, mainstream public educational institutions are struggling with workforce shortages and a dearth of specialist qualifications. Seven in ten school leaders in England are cutting down on teaching assistants, 49% say they have reduced support staff and 81% believe they will need to make further cuts this year. In some locations, pupils are 20 times less likely to get support from an educational psychologist.

Teacher reading to child in wheelchair

From the point of view of families and educators themselves, an underprepared workforce is a common barrier to effective policy.

ScopeSEND’s research found that an underprepared workforce was a common barrier to effective policy, from the point of view of the families and of the educators themselves; this was a common theme across jurisdictions, despite country differences in workforce qualification and in-service training. Countries with more positive lived experiences, such as Scotland, Finland and Switzerland, tend to embed SEND content and continuous learning in their initial teacher training (ITT), and they are also more likely to define SEND by needs and through more inclusive language.

These three countries have adopted a more ‘biopsychosocial’ approach to defining SEND, based on everyday needs. This recognises psychological and social contexts, how they interact, and restrictions in everyday life participation, instead of a solely diagnosis-based, medicalised approach. For example, a biopsychosocial needs-based approach to SEND includes more mention of concepts such as ‘belonging’, ‘inclusion’, ‘participation’, ‘play’ and ‘wellbeing’ in their policy.

More needs-led policies clearly present a more positive sentiment around SEND, with Scotland having the most positive tone of policy language, in contrast to England, where terminology and sentiment was one of the least positive. Such policy sentiment is consistent with the finding that end-user experience in England is the most negative.

Our research is showing that the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) may help with a fairer allocation of resources. It asks a different question. It's not focusing on diagnosis, it’s about who needs what, what those needs are and how we can document them.

Susana Castro-Kemp
Professor of Inclusion, 125th Anniversary Chair

Some countries with a more needs-led system use the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), an effective WHO framework for measuring health and disability at both individual and population levels. “Our research is showing that ICF may help with a fairer allocation of resources. It asks a different question. It's not focusing on diagnosis, it’s about who needs what, what those needs are and how we can document them,” says Castro-Kemp.

Different borders, shared experiences

Talking to end users–practitioners, policymakers, children and their families or caregivers–has been central to the project. Through these conversations ScopeSEND has found that families, children and educators in all countries have similar challenges, despite distinct policies internationally. These challenges include: difficulty navigating the system, inconsistency in provision, an underprepared workforce, and poor-quality relationships between families and schools.

To understand why this is the case, the research team delved further into their analysis. “It often has to do with wider aspects, for example historical aspects in each country and the way that the policy has evolved”, says Castro-Kemp. Policies are in flux with Finland, for instance, now trending towards a quasi-market approach. “Some of the rights that have been taken for granted for years are now being slightly tightened and limited. This changes everything for families especially, such as their perception of their right to choose which setting the children should go to, and their trust in workforce preparedness.”

However, there were countries that reported more positive experiences of their SEND systems than others, despite these shared challenges. What has been identified as key to these positive experiences is: good communication channels and co-operation between schools and families, localised / devolved systems, highly skilled workforce training for inclusion that is continuous and embedded in school life, and better universal early intervention for all, independent from diagnoses.

Parents holding their child's hands walking down a school corridor with a teacher

Relationships between families and schools consistently come across as key to improve experiences of SEND systems.

Scotland, Switzerland and Finland show good, well-established communication channels and relationships between families and schools, which has proven key for positive lived experiences. A highly trusted and qualified workforce is a contributing factor in Finland, where families report high trust in teachers. In Switzerland, an effective and devolved family-centred early intervention system brings together families and the local community, a trait shared with Finland. Scotland has specific initiatives geared to improve communications between parents and schools, including councils and digital hubs. “Overall, having devolved mechanisms and early intervention systems seems to be key to facilitate communication,” argues Castro-Kemp.

Overall, having devolved mechanisms and early intervention systems seems to be key to facilitate communication.

Susana Castro-Kemp
Professor of Inclusion, 125th Anniversary Chair

ScopeSEND’s findings come at a crucial moment for SEND in England. In 2025, Castro-Kemp gave evidence to a House of Commons Education Committee inquiry, providing insight on how to strengthen inclusivity of England’s education system to inform policy reforms. The Committee's final report cited ScopeSEND’s work extensively as the government responds to the shortcomings of its SEND efforts over the last decade.

Sir Mufti Hamid Patel CBE, Professor Susana Castro-Kemp, Minister for School Standards Georgia Gould MP

Professor Castro-Kemp hosted the event 'SEND & Inclusion' at Labour Party Conference 2026, with speakers Sir Mufti Hamid Patel CBE and UK Minister for School Standards Georgia Gould MP.

“I think the last two years have been really unique in terms of this government being open to listening to stakeholders and researchers, and to look at evidence,” says Castro-Kemp. Alongside fellow University of Birmingham academic Professor Karen Guldberg, Castro-Kemp has also been appointed to an expert government panel to oversee the development of National Inclusion Standards and Specialist Provision Packages.

Professor Susana Castro-Kemp holding a microphone delivering a speech at Labour Party Conference event

Professor Castro-Kemp has been appointed to an expert government panel to oversee the development of National Inclusion Standards and Specialist Provision Packages.

While reform is vital, changes must be carefully considered. “It would be very easy to scrap the current system and build a new one. But we can't do that. We need to embed changes in ways that will not harm the children who are currently being served under the Children and Families Act. And there's no straightforward answer to any of that.”

Policymakers must also follow the principles established in the 2026 Schools White Paper, including the benefits of early intervention, the importance of SEND teacher training investments, localisation of services, and the need for multi-agency collaboration between schools and public services. As the Department for Education (DfE) commits an extra £4 billion between 2026 and 2029 for schools to prepare for wider SEND reforms, ScopeSEND’s timely work could help England become a leader as governments around the world work towards better outcomes for children and young people.

Featured staff

  • Professor Susana Castro-Kemp

    125th Anniversary Chair – Professor of Inclusion

    Staff profile for Professor Susana Castro-Kemp, 125th Anniversary Chair – Professor of Inclusion based in the Department of Inclusion, Disability and Special Needs, University of Birmingham.

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